Edited by: Isabella Pasqualini, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, France
Reviewed by: Silvia Serino, I.R.C.C.S Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Italy; Andrea Serino, University of Bologna, Italy
*Correspondence: Alexandra A. de Sousa
This article was submitted to Cognitive Science, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology
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Knowing who we are, and where we are, are two fundamental aspects of our physical and mental experience. Although the domains of spatial and social cognition are often studied independently, a few recent areas of scholarship have explored the interactions of place and self. This fits in with increasing evidence for embodied theories of cognition, where mental processes are grounded in action and perception. Who we are might be integrated with where we are, and impact how we move through space. Individuals vary in personality, navigational strategies, and numerous cognitive and social competencies. Here we review the relation between social and spatial spheres of existence in the realms of philosophical considerations, neural and psychological representations, and evolutionary context, and how we might use the built environment to suit who we are, or how it creates who we are. In particular we investigate how two spatial reference frames, egocentric and allocentric, might transcend into the social realm. We then speculate on how environments may interact with spatial cognition. Finally, we suggest how a framework encompassing spatial and social cognition might be taken in consideration by architects and urban planners.
Understanding the nature of spatial knowledge is a classical issue in psychology, philosophy, and behavioral biology; it is also a core practical problem for architects designing effective buildings. Heidegger (
Knowing the location of the objects around and how to reach them is crucial for carrying out the vast majority of organism's activities. The nature of an organism's plastic spatial relationship to the environment is also a defining quality of its identity. As mobile beings, we rarely remain in one place for a long period of time. It is imperative to our physical and social survival that we travel to different locations to perform daily tasks, visit with family and friends, and exercise. These tasks require an accurate spatial representation of our environment for proper navigation, perhaps through a
The perception of space has long been seen as a special task for perception in general, and vision in particular. Already a century ago Helmholtz (von Helmholtz,
With a grounding in evolutionary theory, we review the role of individual differences in spatial tasks, and conversely, how the built environment can restrict or promote spatial cognition, and how that influences one's selfhood. Figure
We explore whether seemingly different intended usages of the terms egocentric and allocentric are in fact related, in terms of neuroanatomical or behavioral attributes. Thus, a major goal of this paper is to review how these terms have been used, and clarify what these terms actually mean in theoretical, experimental, evolutionary, and applied contexts (cf. Proulx et al.,
Why do individuals respond to environmental stimuli differently? How do our interactions in social and spatial environments relate to who we are? In this section we first provide an overview of personality theories, and then expand this into an overview of theories about ego, self, and personality. Thus, we describe a conceptualization in which the self is determined by an interaction between an individual's personality and environmental factors (including social and spatial factors). We further develop this to consider how extreme differences in environment and sensory ability could play a role in shaping the self. Finally, we introduce the terms egocentric and allocentric from the perspective of personality theory.
The roles of the ego, self, and personality as constituents of the mind have been a hot topic of debate over the last century, with definitions and postulations regarding their unity, diversity and function, changing with time and with shifts in paradigms (Baumeister,
In their recent work on “the quiet ego” self-identity, Bauer and Wayment find that in modern scientific psychology the term ego is either synonymous with the term self, or it describes the process which creates the self (Bauer and Wayment,
There are multiple (but not necessarily exclusive) ways of understanding the self which are relevant to personality, and to social and spatial cognition. Here we review the classic theories of the self in an historical perspective as these serve as the foundation of modern studies of the self, and provide the clearest links to philosophy and behavioral biology. Important steps toward understanding and defining the self are, first, clearly defining personality and, second, demarcating the domains of operation of the mind. The latter is comprehensively covered by the concept of cognitive abilities: the adaptive abilities related to knowledge acquisition, understanding, and learning (Jensen,
Given that the initial interest in the study of personality was inspired by research in humans, in one of the earliest attempts, Allport defined it as “the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristics, behavior, and thought” (Allport,
Another attempt to define and deconstruct personality was trait theory. One of its proponents, Eysenck, proposed that personality might be explained by as few as three general, orthogonal, personality traits—namely extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism (Eysenck,
After acknowledging that personality differences might be ubiquitous in animal life and not exclusively human property, Gosling (Gosling,
The concept of the self is much more recent than the concept of personality, both in terms of it being a recent philosophical consideration, and it terms of how it arises from the natural world. It has been suggested to be a “created problem”—one arising from the pursuit to define and redefine identity over time (Baumeister,
A turning point in conceptualizing the self was the theory of Maslow (
Both spatial and social behaviors directly impact the self. Firstly, in the aforementioned modern view, the self is considered to be a product of the representational and interaction systems of the organism and its environment (including spatial and social factors), as modulated and mediated by the personality. Further, in self-aware individuals, the self is a product of the ability of the organism to be aware of mental states and attention in others (Reddy,
The self, understood as a reference frame of the mind derived from the interaction between personality dispositions and these environment-oriented systems, is thus a product of the individual's social and spatial interactions, among others (Humphrey,
By extension of this framework, extreme differences in environment or sensory ability could, along with personality, have a significant interaction with the self. First, sensory disabilities (such as blindness and deafness) and environmental constraints (such as solitude or confinement) can modify an individual's interaction with the environment, in particular by preventing social and spatial interactions and limiting perception. In addition, they could have an impact on personality, and thus have an impact on the self in this manner. Second, personality influences how the external environment is perceived. Much research and theoretical development has noted the role of attention for consciousness (Dehaene et al.,
The ways in which we sense and perceive the world could influence the sense of who we are in personality and social domains. Although there have not been reports of different personality dimensions for visually impaired persons, higher levels of anxiety have been noted (Donoyama and Takeda,
The terms “egocentric” and “allocentric” are used in both social and spatial domains. Theories of grounded cognition are built on the notion that mental concepts and representations are not merely semantic, and thus amodal, but instead are grounded in sensorimotor experience and interactions with the environment (Barsalou et al.,
The concept of a
There has been much discussion about how, in practice, space is actually represented cognitively in humans and other animals, and whether one of the frames of reference dominates, or they necessarily work together (Wang and Spelke,
Sensory abilities influence the use of spatial reference frames. The default spatial reference frame can differ among individuals as a function of visual experience (Pasqualotto and Proulx,
How does sensory information inform spatial reference frames? Different sensory modalities provide different types of information about space. Vision is the sensory modality most relied upon for distal information. This may be demonstrated in how visual perception influences the perception of distance. With a consistent, unaltered ground, sighted individuals are just as accurate at walking to previously viewed objects when their eyes are closed compared to when they are open, even at large distances of up to 22 m (Sinai et al.,
Egocentric and allocentric are often described as aspects of personality or social behavior.
Egocentric social behavior is generally considered to be relatively simple and an early stage of behavioral progression, not just in terms of human development, but also in terms of behavioral evolution, since it seems to be phylogenetically primitive to empathetic behavior. According to the model of Koski and Sterck, chimpanzees demonstrate aspects of empathy including emotional mimicry, a distinction between self and other, and the understanding of mental states of another without facial cues (although as is the case in humans there exist individual differences in these capacities within this species Koski and Sterck,
The term
As mentioned above, the terms egocentric and allocentric are both used to describe social behavior independently, but are not so often used as a pair. However, Frith et al. (Frith and de Vignemont,
Training might also impact whether one attends more to one's self, or via different reference frame, to other aspects of the environment. In meditation one acts to control one's own cognitive faculties, in particular attention and emotion (Lutz et al.,
Despite the overlap in the definitions for egocentrism within the social and spatial spheres, traditionally the fields of spatial and social cognition are independent. Nonetheless, a few recent studies have discovered that the spatial and social domains interact. Recent findings that spatial strategies vary according to sociability fit well with increasing evidence for embodied theories of cognition, where mental processes are grounded in action and perception (Barsalou et al.,
Several studies imply that individual differences in representation are possible and might arise from other forms of experience. Although social behavior does not immediately seem spatial in nature, some studies have linked social skills and spatial skills. Work by Shelton et al. (Marchette et al.,
Spatial reference frames are the fundamental way that the locations of objects and oneself are represented in an environment. Similar frames of reference are used in social contexts as well, such as by using a spatial metaphor such as a vertical hierarchy to define place and role within a group (Rodman,
Social perspectives can influence spatial cognition on large scales that are more abstract. Moreover, there are suggestions that social aspects of the self, influence even more basic aspects of spatial cognition at perceptual levels as well. Navigation for a sighted person appears to be so simple, that it can be done seemingly unconsciously. One key form of information used is optic flow, the changing angular movement of points, objects, and surfaces across the retina as one moves through the environment (Esch et al.,
Two major systems of spatial cognition are self-mapping and navigation, and each are crucial domains for understanding the role of egocentric and allocentric reference frames. In the
The region of space to which a given neuron responds to stimuli is called its
The neuroscience of spatial navigation is known largely from studies of freely moving rats. The
The hippocampal and topographic coding systems work together in spatial navigation tasks. It has been suggested that they link in parietal association areas of the neocortex, which are also crucial to spatial perception, contain topographic maps representing multiple sensory modalities, and may also provide navigational information (Arbib,
The increasing psychological evidence for relations between social and spatial cognition are matched by new findings that suggest overlapping neural networks for processing these seemingly independent domains. Spatial cognition has many components, ranging from low-level retinotopic mapping to high-level spatial reasoning. General spatial awareness is relevant for social interactions, in that knowing who is where in relation to oneself is a core aspect of social behavior (Cheney et al.,
In some neocortical areas, a neural representation of one's own body can map the body of another individual as well. Seeing another person being touch activates primary somatosensory cortex, overlapping with somatotopic organization for one's own body (Blakemore et al.,
The involvement of the temporal lobe and the temporoparietal junction in particular, provides another area of overlap between spatial and social processes (Karnath et al.,
Numerous brain features have been put forth as possible correlates of personality, although the particular functions of these are often obscure. One study found an association between neuroticism and the ratio of whole-brain volume to intracranial volume (Knutson et al.,
The search for the neuroanatomical correlates of the social self has proven to be extremely difficult, mainly because there are substantial disagreements as to what exactly is the self. As described above, following a more spatial, or embodied definition of the self, the physical self is mapped onto cortex in a spatially organized fashion, and the mapping of other's body can be superimposed over such a representation. Other neuroanatomical correlates have been suggested using other definitions of “self” centered on its narrative, conceptual properties. Upon defining the self as “temporally stable, trans-situational consistencies in behavior, dress, or political or religious ideology” one study in patients with frontotemporal dementia found that autobiographical memory and motivation have anatomic representations in the frontal lobes (Miller et al.,
Spatial and social behaviors are intertwined in many species, and the evolution and ecology of these behaviors provide many insights—indeed a foundation as illustrated in Figure
The notion that the human-built environment can influence the course of evolution in
Advancements in both spatial cognition (Parker and Gibson,
In fact, the view we support here is that social and spatial factors were both prime movers in primate cognitive evolution, and likely co-evolved inter-dependently for behavioral and neuroanatomical reasons. First, primate foraging posits cognitive demands beyond those of other animals, and can include long-distance movement through a three dimensional arboreal environment, the acquisition of rare and high-quality foods, tool use, the carrying of young, and communication (Janmaat et al.,
Second, the neuroanatomical substrates for spatial cognition may have been co-opted for social cognition, perhaps very early in the mammalian lineage, and thus the trend would have already existed well before the primate radiation. Brain areas which represent space topographically are conserved across vertebrates, and more recent cortical areas with similar organization have been proposed as the basis of the most complex primate social behaviors. For example, retinotopy is a feature of the tectum (superior colliculus) which is a primitive structure in the primate brain that uses retinotopic maps to guide eye saccades and other movements body parts in space (Lane et al.,
There may also be overlapping trends in the evolution of spatial and social cognition in the hippocampal system, which is involved in both. The ecological variable best associated with spatial cognition and used to compare behaviors across species is the size of the home range, defined by Burt as “that area traversed by the individual in its normal activities of food gathering, mating, and caring for young”(Burt,
Additionally, individual differences have been shown to be present in numerous vertebrate and invertebrate species and to have fitness consequences (Réale et al.,
Advancements in tool making and brain reorganization consistent with improved spatial cognition appear early in human evolution, and continue through to the emergence of our species (de Sousa and Cunha,
Tool-use and tool-making place special demands on spatial cognition at the level of the individual, as well. When an individual uses a tool it becomes an extension of the self as it is incorporated into pre-existing topographic map of the body, something well studied in higher primates (Iriki et al.,
Early transitional hominins have been suggested to exhibit a shift to upright, bipedal posture (Lovejoy et al.,
How might design influence spatial cognition directly, and (perhaps) social cognition indirectly? Given the foundation in evolutionary theory, and the relation between the psychological concepts of space and self (see Figure
The size of the space can clearly influence the reference frame used (Presson et al.,
The environment can also be structured to influence a number of aspects of individual learning and experience that affect the spatial reference frames used. The way of learning spatial information impacts the reference frame used (Presson and Hazelrigg,
We have thus far suggested how spatial factors interact with personality, individual differences, the social self, and perception. How might impositions on space from the built environment affect social and spatial cognition?
Incarceration is an extreme and long term restriction of movement in space which has recently received much political, social, and media attention. Whether in the sphere of prison reforms and attitudes surrounding punishment, or through the questions of how best to care for those with severe health problems, the questions surrounding the practice of “putting away” people deemed to be reprehensible, risky, or in danger is one which evokes strong feelings and generates much controversy and discussion.
Within philosophy, growing attention is being given to what might be interpreted as disorders of confinement such as claustrophobia (Trigg,
Human beings are always
How would the restricted environment of an incarcerated person influence their perception for self? Long term inmates frequently report changes to their sense of
Living in space and space travel, such as planned missions to Mars, require long periods of confinement, though voluntarily accepted and often not in social isolation. A number of studies have examined how such confinement during actual missions influences one's perceptual and cognitive abilities. For example, distance estimation and size perception, such as that studied with visual illusions, are both impacted by the combination of a restricted environment and microgravity (Clément et al.,
The benefits of building designs can be compared in terms of quantitative data about health, stress, and other aspects of physiology (Edelstein,
Urban planning and building design can reflect both the needs and culture of those using it, and also potentially affect the cultural and social experience of the inhabitants. Studies of confinement could give insight into how the perception of space is influenced by and influences aspects of the self-defined individual or as part of the culture the individuals come from. The research should also indicate how the non-visual perception of space and self-motion can influence the perception of space and magnitude, and thus be applied to buildings (real or virtual) created for the sensory or physically impaired. The layout and construction of a building might better promote successful navigation for those with sensory impairments (Passini and Proulx,
Who we are is where we are. Our minds map ours bodies and the world around us. As discussed above, egocentric and allocentric reference frames are often studied as two opposing spatial strategies in navigation and other aspects of spatial cognition, however, these may actually be linked across social and spatial cognition. Individual differences in cognitive and sensory abilities impact navigation as well (Passini and Proulx,
Our review has further implications for designing public housing spaces, social spaces, and even nurseries. The fact that experience can shape individual differences, which in turn can affect the quality of spatial and social cognition, suggests that growing up in certain built environments can have detrimental or beneficial effects on cognitive ability. For example, blocks of flats, which introduce a major third vertical dimension to navigation (Jeffery et al.,
This is a solid start, but could be extended with further consideration of the interactions of spatial cognition and ability, personality, and differences in cognition. Where we are might mold who we are, but given our ability to shape the environment, we can play an active role in the development of the self.
This work was supported in part by a grant from the EPSRC to MP (EP/J017205/1).
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The reviewer AS and handling Editor declared a current collaboration and the handling Editor states that the process nevertheless met the standards of a fair and objective review.
We thank Sara Dell'Erba, Gesine Marquardt, Alexander Pankov, and David Vale for preliminary discussions concerning some of the topics of this paper.